Author: fbenedictus

  • Reign of Error: Chapter Three

    Read ‘Reign of Error’ from the start (=link to ‘Prologue’)

    Previously in ‘Reign of Error’: our cleaning droid, CD-2, is crashing down, while on the planet below a boy Isaac is looking for mushrooms in a cave. Isaac is angry with his father, the village chieftain, for having sacrificed an innocent lamb to the Wargod.

    “…As Isaac slowly went deeper into the cavern, it became more and more difficult for the daylight to illumine the contours of the cave. Groping his way along the dank walls, he could only hope that the cave wasn’t the hiding place of some unfriendly animal.

    After several hundreds of steps the bright sunlight had been reduced to a mere glimmer. Even mushrooms need some sunlight to survive, Isaac thought to himself, and he was about to turn around when he saw a faint glow emanating from beyond where the cave made a sudden turn. Isaac carefully stepped forward to peek around the corner.

    What he saw then stunned him with amazement. Right beneath a hole in the cave’s roof, a reddish, golden, bin-like piece of pottery seemed heavenly illuminated. Isaac didn’t know whether to kneel or to run away as fast as he could. The pot seemed to be grinning hideously at him, but its color inspired him with awe. This must be what the Elders have talked about for all of those years, the Wargod has finally sent down his emissary! Not knowing what else to do, Isaac decided to kneel down before the heavenly pot, and began to pray. When he had exhausted the numerous appellations of the Wargod, he got off his knees, took off his tunic, and gently wrapped the piece of cloth around the object.

    With skillful speed – gained through years of scouring caves – Isaac quickly found his way out of the dark cave. Terribly excited about his find, he hurried back to the village. It was becoming darker, and Isaac could already feel the cold air of the encroaching night raise the hairs on his skin. He couldn’t move too swiftly, because he had to watch closely where he stepped, as many of the smaller reptiles chose this hour to appear from their nooks and crannies.

    The sun had all but sunk beneath the hills, when Isaac, all sludgy and covered in sweat, finally reached the village’s wooden stockade. Passing the central watering place, Isaac dashed straight to his father’s hut. Out of breath, with the pot firmly under his arm, he knocked loudly on the door. Impatient of the stumbling within, he knocked again, this time even more loudly.

    The Chief had invited the Council of Elders to discuss the recent dispute with the neighboring town. When he heard the heavy knocking, he frowned irritably, and slowly moved to the door. The eyes of the Chief widened in amazement upon the discovery that his very own son was the cause of the disturbance. The hour of the deed made it into an outrage indeed!

    When Isaac saw the anger in his father’s eyes, he quickly uncovered the object he had found in the cave, telling his father of his interpretation of the facts. “This must be the Wargod’s emissary – look at its color!” But the Chief paid no attention to what his son had found, and looked the boy sternly in the eyes. “Let us not jump to conclusions young man, and let’s first discuss the fact that you had promised to return home before sundown,” his father replied grumpily. “But the Wargod…” Isaac meekly interrupted “The Wargod wants us to be aware of the consequences of our actions. What would happen to our pretty little community if everyone broke promises as easily as you?”

    Isaac did not wait until the moralizations had finished. He rushed past his father and burst into the adjacent room. He saw a small group of beardy old men squatting in a circle. Upon seeing the object, they started whispering excitedly. “The emissary…it is the emissary!”

    According to one of the Old Poems, one day the Wargod would send an emissary to guide his chosen people onto the true path of eternal happiness by his unfaltering advice. “We must thank the Wargod for this gift!” The oldest of the men raised his arms into the air and started praying aloud. The other men likewise raised their arms and joined the prayer. As Isaac watched his father join the other men in an ecstatic dance around the pot, he was suddenly overwhelmed by the absurdity of it all. How could this pot-thing ever give the advice they needed – or any advice, for that matter?  

    On the following day, the Council of Elders decided that the Pot should be put in its own temple. A special cottage was built in which the Pot was to be placed on a pedestal, and henceforth, all decisions concerning the fate of the village would have to be ratified by the new oracle. Seven days and nights the villagers celebrated. They joyfully danced around the Pot, and covered it with garlands of sweet-scented flowers. The new era, the era of light, was at hand!”


    Will CD-2 be able to give to the villagers the advice they seek? How will he do that? Will he even understand them?

    Find out for yourself in the next episode of ‘The reign of Error’. Don’t forget to subscribe to the updates on this blog so that you receive the next episode automatically! 

    [fill in your email-address in the box at the upper-right corner of the page (below ‘categories’)]

  • Reign of Error: Chapter One

    “…It all started when the first manned interstellar mission ever recorded was carried out by the society that had produced me. Ever recorded, because scientists had been unable to determine whether the feat had been accomplished by one of the earlier civilizations that had dominated our world. What scientists also had failed to determine seemed to be the last obstacle between us and the stars. No astronaut could be found that was crazy enough to boldly dash into the infinite depths of a universe of which ninety-five percent was missing! They sugarcoated their ignorance by using the euphemism ‘dark matter’ to describe the missing stuff. Finally, after weeks of campaigning, the Space Corporation found, in the Asylum for Depressed Veterans of Cybernetic Warfare, an entire squad of lunatics that was ready to do the job. And they found me. That’s where I learned to play chess.

    Space is not all it’s cracked up to be. When the initial enthusiasm about the launch had subsided, interstellar space-travel turned out to be rather boring. Especially for a cleaning droid. In fact, I remember quietly wishing that our ship would run into a dust-storm every now and then. What I didn’t know was that my life was about to become a whole lot more interesting. But at that time there was little more to do than play chess with the crew. The excitement started when our ship collided with an asteroid whose course had been diverted by a sudden solar storm.

    At first it looked like we hadn’t taken too much damage. Some bruised crewmen, a few scratches on the hull, that seemed to be all. But it wasn’t all. Two days later our artificial gravity suddenly failed. Guess who had to clean up the mess it made! But that was not the end of it. The following day, just when we passed this blue-greenish, medium-sized planet, our engines began to falter. The captain decided to try to land the ship, so we started a descent into the planet’s atmosphere.

    This seemed like a good idea, but with our engines crippled there was no way to counter the planet’s gravitational pull. We rushed through a thick layer of clouds, and ground zero was closing in fast. At last – the lands below were beginning to take shape – someone came up with the idea to throw overboard unnecessary ballast. The thought at first seemed reasonable, until I realized that their favorite chessplaying-mate was to be cast away along with some redundant furniture. Before I could warn them of having to operate the vacuum cleaner themselves, those brutes had already thrown me overboard like a lifeless chunk of metal. Indignation turned into panic when I saw the image of the ship shrink to a miniature as I fell faster and faster towards the surface below…”

    Read more about CD-2 in next week’s episode of ‘The reign of Error’. Don’t forget to subscribe to the updates on this blog so that you receive the next episode automatically! 

    Click here to read Chapter Two of ‘Reign of Error’

  • The reign of Error: prologue


    This summer I’ll continue writing my short story series ‘Alice in Numberland’, but before I do, I’d like to share with you a SF-like story I wrote several years ago. What motivated me to write it was, believe it or not, Edward Gibbon’s ‘Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire’. Gibbon’s work is pretty far from a short story (six volumes; 3500 pages), but it made me wonder: how can it be that one of the greatest empires in the world was ruled by such lunatics? Take Caligula, who made his favourite horse senator; or Nero, who set Rome on fire. Or that time when the emperor Commodus was killed by his own bodyguards who then sold the throne to the highest bidder – does it even matter who’s in charge? This blogpost contains the prologue to my story… enjoy!

    (more…)
  • Coping with covid II: English translation

    I promised that I would write another blogpost (click here for the first) about how I cope with the whole quarantine situation, so here it is. The second part of my strategy is to do a lot of writing. That works very well for me, because it makes me feel less alone, as if I am interacting with those who read my texts.

    But this strategy is not as easy as it seems. The moments I need company the most, the moments I am most lonely, are also the moments at which it is most difficult to put myself to work, to actually start writing. So this strategy only works in combination with something else: I need to plan my writing activity. On the evening before a writing day, before I go to bed, I try to come up with an idea about what I want to start writing about the next morning. Only that makes it possible for me to start writing even when I am feeling lonely or sad.  

    In the past few days I coped with the quarantine by translating the first chapter of my book about relativity theory into English:

    Down the rabbit hole

    It is often said that the beginning of the 20th century is an era in which physics has become too complicated for ordinary mortals. We have a clear intuition for the ideas of Newton and his contemporaries (often called classical physics), in which gravity explains why stones fall and the earth moves around the sun. This intuition comes to a sudden end when relativity theory and the theory of quantum mechanics appear.

    In Newton’s physics, space and time are abstract but simple concepts, that can be measured with clocks and measuring sticks. Space and time enable us to understand the world around us, because they make it possible to describe any kind of physical change. But in the 20th century we no longer know which measuring sticks are straight and which clocks are synchronous, so it has become a challenge to understand what space and time are, which makes the transition from Newton’s to Einstein’s worldview seem like a radical transformation.  In this book I will show that the transition from classical to modern physics is not as abrupt as it is often presented – Newton and Einstein are more alike than we think.

    The classical Newtonian worldview is not as obvious or easy-to-understand as is usually assumed, because much interpretation is needed to get from Newton’s physics (his mathematical equations) to a coherent view of what ‘reality’ is like. When we try to find out what Newton’s formulas tell us about the world outside ourselves, we will see that the concepts that lie at the foundations of classical physics are the same as those on which early 20th century physics is built.

    Gerard ‘t Hooft and Alice in Wonderland

    A couple of years ago I was at a physics conference with a philosophical bend, a conference about the foundations of spacetime theories. During one of the coffee breaks I had a chat with the keynote speaker of the conference, the Nobel laureate Professor Gerard ‘t Hooft. We agreed on many things – the location of the conference, Varna, Bulgaria, was great, and the weather was perfect. Then he said something that really surprised me: he was not there for the philosophy of space and time. “Then what are you doing here?!” I asked him full of surprise. “I have a new theoretical toy-model for black holes, and I want to discuss that”, he said, shrugging his shoulders.

                Gerard (we have become very good friends since then) is not the only physicist for whom the philosophy of space and time, and philosophy in general, is not the primary reason to visit a conference on physics. I find that difficult to grasp. Why are we interested in physics? Of course, we want technological advance, so we want to know how we can make new discoveries and which experiments are necessary for that, but we also want to find out something about the world – We want to understand the reality that exists independently of us and our experiments.  

                Physics gives us a model of reality outside of us, but that model does not say of itself whether it is a good model. It’s as if you’re trying to check a calculation that you made with a calculator by using the calculator itself. If the calculator made a mistake the first time, for example because of a loose key or because something went wrong in the factory when the calculator was manufactured, then probably the calculator will make the same mistake when checking the calculation. The physicist who wants to check whether their model of reality is a good model, is also checking their own calculations, just as the calculator.

    The plight of the physicist is comparable to that of Alice in Wonderland. Alice wants to know whether she has grown after she drank from a small bottle and she tries to find out by holding her hand above her own head. That doesn’t work because she has no external point of reference, like a measuring stick. When physicists try to find out whether their model of reality is a good model, they are doing the same thing as Alice. They do not have an external point of reference, so the best they can do is hold their own hand above their heads.

  • What is the philosophy of physics?

    What is the philosophy of physics?

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  • Coping with Covid

    Because the number of Covid infections increased rapidly, the Dutch government has decided that the Netherlands should go into a ‘partial lockdown’. I fully understand why this is necessary, but that doesn’t mean that it doesn’t bother me. I live alone, and although I don’t always show it, I really love company. What is also very important for me, is a well-structured day. What to do when social interaction is actively discouraged and I’m not allowed to go to work every day? How do I go about coping with Covid?

    I have come up with several ways to deal with these things, and I have the idea (or hope?) that others might benefit from them as well. That’s why this blogpost will be the first in a series of posts about strategies to cope with the quarantine situation. I know that the situation is far worse in other places, but I hope that perhaps my strategies also work for others.

    FIRST STRATEGY OF COPING WITH COVID: ENTER A FANTASY WORLD

    Alexander the Great, who helps me coping with COVID.

    Since my early childhood, I’ve been a bit of a fanboy of Alexander the Great. I had a poster of him in my bedroom and I knew the names of all the battles he had fought and cities he had conquered. My passion for Alexander has not become less over the years: I have visited many places where Alexander has once been, and in my bedroom there is now a map of his expedition.

    In these times of quarantining, one of my ways to cope with the loneliness is curling myself up in a warm easychair and start reading a book about the history of Alexander the Great. So much is written about his expedition, that I never have any trouble finding a book about Alexander which I haven’t read yet (when I heard about the new semi-lockdown yesterday, I immediately mail-ordered W.W. Tarn’s 1948 classic ‘Alexander the Great’).

    To optimise my Alexander-experience, I set my phone to ‘do not disturb’ for 60 minutes. I choose appropriate background music (The Kaiser Chiefs for Alexander’s youth; Wagner for Alexander’s return-journey), while I surround myself with dictionaries and (historical) atlasses that might assist me when Alexander’s expedition is under way. Sometimes I put a poster up with a detailed map of the territory involved, so that I can really follow the development of the story. All these things together really help me get my mind off things that are happening around me.

    Donald Duck, who also helps me coping with COVID.

    I think a similar strategy could work for ‘Lord of the Rings’, ‘Game of Thrones’, stories about ‘Donald Duck’ or ‘Mickey Mouse’ (combine this with Stravinsky!), or perhaps also with romantic literature (Tolstoy with Tchaikovski?). But be sure to think it through! The strategy only has effect if you are doing things in an unusual way. Try to make a real ritual out of it: move your armchair to the centre of the room every afternoon at four o’clock sharp, turn on the music, turn off your phone, and dive into your fantasyworld for 60 minutes!

    wrap up:

    • choose your fantasyworld
    • reposition armchair
    • set phone to ‘do not disturb’
    • choose suitable background music

    Do you have another strategy to get through the corona-crisis? let me know by posting below!

    [also: don’t forget to subscribe to this blog (fill in your emailaddress in upper right corner) to find out more about my coping strategies ;)]

  • Verloren hoofdstuk: ‘Newton, Astronoom of Astroloog?’

    Het is dan eindelijk zover: vanaf deze week ligt mijn boek “Op zoek naar de grenzen van de natuurkunde” in de boekhandel! Door het gedoe rondom corona zal er geen officiële boekpresentatie plaatsvinden, maar dat betekent natuurlijk niet dat de publicatie geruisloos voorbij gaat. Via Twitter, Instagram, Facebook en LinkedIn zullen jullie veel van me horen de komende tijd. Als voorproefje hieronder vast een ongepubliceerd hoofdstuk uit een eerdere versie van het boek.

    Het hoofdstuk gaat over de natuurkunde van Isaac Newton, die wordt beschouwd als een van de grondleggers van de moderne wetenschap.

    “Was Newton Astronoom of Astroloog?

    Toen ik aan de universiteit van Utrecht sterrenkunde studeerde, vertelde onze docent over een foutje dat zijn secretaresse enkele jaren eerder gemaakt had. Op de doctorandesbul van een de studenten van onze docent stonden de woorden “doctorandus in de astrologie”, in plaats van de doctorandus in de astronomie.” Vanaf dat moment ging de grap rond dat er in heel Nederland maar één universiteit is waar je een doctorandus-titel in de astrologie kunt krijgen.

    Waarom noemen we astronomie een wetenschap, terwijl we astrologie – de overtuiging dat de stand van de sterren invloed heeft op menselijk handelen –  beschouwen als pseudo-wetenschap? En hoe dacht Newton daarover? Laten we ons eerst richten op de eerste vraag: waarom is astrologie geen echte wetenschap? Het standaardantwoord is dat de uitspraken van astrologen vaak zó vaag en multi-interpretabel zijn dat ze niet met behulp van experimenten kunnen worden weerlegd.

    Zwaartekracht in Newtons theorie is een beetje als de portemonnee die wordt weggetrokken in de klassieke ‘practical joke’ – waar is het touwtje en wie trekt eraan?

    Uitspraken van astrologen zijn vaak vaag, terwijl de meeste astrologische uitspraken niet weerlegbaar zijn. ‘Vaak’, ‘de meeste’, …zijn er dan ook gevallen waarin astrologie wel wetenschap is? Er is een tweede reden waarom velen astrologie onwetenschappelijk vinden: het ontbreken van een mechanisme dat beschrijft hoe astrologie werkt. Als een astroloog bijvoorbeeld een verband ziet tussen de stand van de sterren tijdens iemands geboorte en het feit dat de geborene graag appels eet, dan is het niet duidelijk hoe de sterren invloed op de persoon in kwestie kunnen hebben gehad. Het is niet duidelijk hoe de correlatie tussen de sterrenstand en de geboorte een oorzakelijk verband met zich meebrengt. Deze kritiek op astrologie hangt samen met het begrip lokaliteit.

    Lokaliteit

    We zien om ons heen dat objecten invloed op elkaar kunnen uitoefenen als ze elkaar raken (zoals botsende biljartballen). Als we zien dat een object plotseling versnelt of vertraagt, dan gaan we ervan uit dat deze werking wordt veroorzaakt door iets dat het object raakt; we gaan ervan uit dat alle beïnvloeding lokaal (plaatselijk) is. Als er een afstand is tussen het object dat versnelt en het object dat deze versnelling veroorzaakt, dan gaan we ervan uit dat we iets missen van wat er gaande is. Astrologische invloed – de invloed van de stand van de sterren op menselijk handelen – is niet-lokaal, waardoor astrologie heel sterk het gevoel oproept dat we iets missen.

    Gedegen wetenschap?

    Laten we nu eens kijken naar Newtons werk. Iets dat vaak over Newton gezegd wordt is dat hij astroloog, alchemist en dogmatisch religieus was, maar desondanks gedegen wetenschappelijk werk verrichtte. Is dat wel zo? Zijn wet van de traagheid stelt dat een object waarop geen krachten werken voor altijd op dezelfde manier door zal bewegen (zonder wrijving zou een bal voor altijd verder blijven rollen). Maar hoe is dat te toetsen in een experiment? We moeten dan van een object waarop geen krachten werken nagaan of het steeds even snel blijft gaan, maar dat kan helemaal niet: Op ieder object werken altijd krachten (denk alleen maar eens aan de gravitatiekracht van degene die het object bestudeert)! De wet van de traagheid is niet te weerleggen, omdat de wet gaat over een situatie die we niet in een experiment kunnen nabootsen.

    Naast de wet van de traagheid is de zwaartekracht een erg belangrijk onderdeel van Newtons theorieën. Newton zelf zegt dat zwaartekracht een werking-op-afstand veroorzaakt: de aarde en de maan trekken elkaar aan, terwijl er een grote afstand tussen de twee is. Ook dat is verre van wat we tegenwoordig gedegen wetenschap noemen. Net als bij de astrologie is de beïnvloeding niet lokaal, en dus krijgen we weer het gevoel dat we iets missen. Hoe kan Newtons zwaartekracht een niet-lokale werking hebben? Voor alle duidelijkheid: Newton zegt dat er een relatie is tussen de stand van de maan en vallende stenen hier op aarde (beide veroorzaakt door de zwaartekracht), en stelt dat een of andere occulte en mysterieuze kracht die relatie veroorzaakt. Hoe is dat anders dan astrologie?!

    Als we Newtons theorieën bekijken in het licht van weerlegbaarheid en lokaliteit, dan komen we tot de verbazende conclusie dat Newton zich altijd met astrologie heeft beziggehouden. Hoe werd er door Newtons tijdgenoten over dit soort zaken gedacht?

    Molière

    De tijd van Newton (eind 16e en begin 17e eeuw) was de tijd van de Wetenschappelijke Revolutie. Het was een tijd van vernieuwing, niet alleen wat betreft de inhoud van de wetenschap (zoals de wetten van Newton), maar ook wat betreft de wetenschappelijke methode. De ideeën die we hadden over wat telt als echte wetenschappelijke kennis, en hoe we aan deze kennis kunnen komen, veranderden radicaal. Zo werd bijvoorbeeld de waarde die werd gehecht aan (reproduceerbare) experimenten erg groot (denk aan Galileï’s experimenten).

    De toneelstukken van Jean-Baptiste Poquelin, beter bekend onder zijn artiestennaam Molière, illustreren deze veranderende tijdgeest. In zijn laatste toneelstuk, ‘Le Malade Imaginaire’ (‘De Ingebeelde Zieke’), steekt Molière de draak met doktoren van de oudere generatie (van vóór de Wetenschappelijke Revolutie), die de slaapverwekkende werking van een medicijn verklaren door te zeggen dat het medicijn een slaapverwekkende kracht, een ‘virtus dormitiva’, heeft. De onderliggende gedachte van Molière is dat doktoren met hun ‘slaapverwekkende kracht’ eigenlijk niets anders doen dan verdoezelen dat ze geen idee hebben waarom het medicijn werkt door een moeilijke Latijnse naam voor ‘slaapverwekkende werking’ te geven: ‘dormire’ is Latijn voor slapen en ‘virtus’ is het Latijnse woord voor kracht – zeggen dat een slaapwekkende werking wordt veroorzaakt door een ‘vitus dormitiva’ is dus allesbehalve een verklaring.

    Had Molière aan Newton niet eenzelfde soort verwijt kunnen maken? Newton stelde dat alle massa’s elkaar aantrekken, en dat daarom massa’s ‘zwaar’ zijn. De aantrekkende werking wordt veroorzaakt door een onzichtbare ‘zwaartekracht’ waarover Newton niet verder wilde speculeren. Newton gebruikte het Latijnse woord voor zwaar (‘gravitas’) om zijn kracht te benoemen. Doet hij niet precies hetzelfde als de doktoren van Molière – het kiezen van een dure Latijnse naam om te verdoezelen dat hij geen idee heeft van waarom dingen gebeuren zoals ze gebeuren? …”

    Wil je hier meer over lezen, of ben je benieuwd wat Einstein hierover te zeggen heeft?

    Bestel en lees dan mijn boek door hier te klikken!

  • “Op zoek naar de grenzen van de natuurkunde”

    In mei gaat Prometheus mijn boek “Op zoek naar de grenzen van de natuurkunde” publiceren. Een mooie kans om al je zorgen even van je af te zetten en helemaal op te gaan in diepe gedachten over wetenschap en filosofie. Zet Netflix even op pauze, en kijk vast naar het lijstje hieronder, met de termen die in de index (‘zakenregister’) komen. De komende weken ga ik meer bloggen over mijn boek, dus abonneer je op mijn blog door je e-mailadres in te vullen op de startpagina (bij: Follow Blog via Email).

    Alice in wonderland

    Gerard ‘t Hooft

    bewegingswetten

    natuurwetten

    model

    werkelijkheid

    rekenmachine

    Narcissus

    waarneming

    subatomair deeltje

    normale verdeling

    gemiddelde

    meetverstoring

    cern

    meetfout

    higgsdeeltje

    deeltjesversneller

    standaardmodel

    Newtons vallende appel

    Einstein

    Zwaartekracht, universele

    Archimedes

    Galileï, inquisitie

    Stukeley

    Relativiteitsbegrip

    Relativiteit, Einstein

    Relativiteit, Galileï

    Grootheid, absoluut/relatief

    Postulaat

    Bewegingswetten van Newton

    Waarnemer

    Parabool

    Galileï, schip

    Constante snelheid

    Versnelling

    Traagheidskracht, ontstaan

    Assyriërs

    Atomen

    Demokritos

    Leukippos

    Coördinatenstelsel

    Functie

    Coördinatenstelsel, oorsprong

    substantivalisme

    Ruimte, absolute

    tijd, absolute

    Snelheid, absolute

    Ordening, absolute

    Ruststelsel

    Rust, absolute

    Versnelling, absolute

    Versnelling, relatieve

    Traagheid

    Impuls

    Massa

    Vector

    Gewicht

    Wetten van Newton

    Traagheidswet

    Wrijving

    Krachtwet

    Oneindig

    Impulsbehoud, principe van

    zwaartekrachtswet

    werking-op-afstand

    gravitatieconstante

    G (zie: gravitatieconstante)

    Cavendish

    Jan Klaassenspel

    Onderbepaaldheid

    Celsius

    Fahrenheit

    sociaal construct

    Latour, Bruno

    Puntdeeltjes

    Atomen, botsen/kruisen

    Ontelbaar

    Singulariteit

    Hilbert, David

    Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm

    Informatie kopieren

    Popper, Karl

    Theoriegeladen

    Lineaire samenhang tussen variabelen

    Galileï, experiment Pisa

    vrije val

    equivalentie van zwaartekracht en traagheidskracht, bij Newton

    energie, kinetische

    energie, potentiële

    hoogtekaart

    veld

    potentiaalveld

    Lagrange, Joseph-Louis

    Gps

    kleinste werking, Het principe van de

    mozaïek

    Hawking, Stephen

    Tijd als verandering

    tijdsymmetrisch

    Boltzmann, Ludwig

    Clausius, Rudolf

    Entropie

    Wanorde

    Tijdrichting

    Evenwichtstoestand

    Equilibrium, zie: Evenwichtstoestand

    kans, entropie en

    ruimte als relatie tussen objecten

    standaardmaten

    relativiteitstheorie, Einsteins algemene

    relativiteitstheorie, Einsteins speciale

    lengtecontractie

    ruimtetijd

    AltaVista

    ‘Over de elektrodynamica van bewegende lichamen’

    Elektrodynamica

    Veld, magnetisch

    Veld, elektrisch

    Geleider

    magneet

    Maxwell, wetten van

    Kracht, elektromagnetische

    gedachte-experiment

    snelheid, ten opzichte van de absolute ruimte

    snelheid, relatieve

    lichtsnelheid, voor iedereen hetzelfde

    lichtsnelheid, absolute

    tijdsdilatatie

    lichtklok

    gamma (γ)

    Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon

    Synchronisatieprobleem

    Gelijktijdigheid

    Skype

    Relativiteitspostulaat

    Lichtpostulaat

    Beschrijving/model

    Mechanica, klassiek

    Mechanica, van Newton (zie: Mechanica, klassiek)

    Equivalentie van zwaartekracht en traagheidskracht, bij Einstein

    Equivalentie, Einsteins principe van

    Kuipers, André

    kromming van ruimte en tijd

    ruimtetijd

    Eddington, Sir Arthur Stanley

    Afbuiging, licht-

    Foton

    Langeafstandswerking (zie: werking-op-afstand)

    Lokaal

    Ligo

    Zwaartekrachtsgolven

    Zwart gat

    Gauss, Carl Friedrich

    180 graden-regel

    Rovelli, Carlo

    Scheermes, van Ockham

    Cox, Brian

    Maudlin, Tim

    kwantumgravitatie

    Kwantumtheorie

    Unificatie

    Wheeler-DeWitt-vergelijking

    Tijd, als illusie

    Snaartheorie

    Laplace, Pierre-Simon

    Kans, Laplace’s definitie

    Kans, het principe van gelijke

    Kans als relatieve frequentie van uitkomsten

    Aristoteles

    Elektronenmicroscoop

    ‘Metaphysica’

    diepte zien

    kracht, middelpuntvliedende

    Franse revolutie

    Dainton, Barry

    Looney Tunes